Preface xv About the Authors xvii On the Cover xviii Nomenclature xix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1-1 Safety Programs 2 1-2 Engineering Ethics 4 1-3 Accident and Loss Statistics 4 1-4 Acceptable Risk 12 1-5 Public Perceptions 14 1-6 The Nature of the Accident Process 15 1-7 Inherent Safety 20 1-8 Seven Significant Disasters 23 Suggested Reading 31 Problems 32 Chapter 2: Toxicology 37 2-1 How Toxicants Enter Biological Organisms 38 2-2 How Toxicants Are Eliminated from Biological Organisms 41 2-3 Effects of Toxicants on Biological Organisms 42 2-4 Toxicological Studies 43 2-5 Dose versus Response 44 2-6 Models for Dose and Response Curves 50 2-7 Relative Toxicity 56 2-8 Threshold Limit Values 56 2-9 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Diamond 58 On-Line Resources 59 Suggested Reading 60 Problems 60 Chapter 3: Industrial Hygiene 65 3-1 Government Regulations 66 3-2 Industrial Hygiene: Anticipation and Identification 78 3-3 Industrial Hygiene: Evaluation 84 3-4 Industrial Hygiene: Control 99 On-Line Resources 109 Suggested Reading 109 Problems 110 Chapter 4: Source Models 119 4-1 Introduction to Source Models 119 4-2 Flow of Liquid through a Hole 122 4-3 Flow of Liquid through a Hole in a Tank 126 4-4 Flow of Liquids through Pipes 131 4-5 Flow of Gases or Vapors through Holes 140 4-6 Flow of Gases or Vapors through Pipes 146 4-7 Flashing Liquids 163 4-8 Liquid Pool Evaporation or Boiling 169 4-9 Realistic and Worst-Case Releases 170 4-10 Conservative Analysis 172 Suggested Reading 173 Problems 174 Chapter 5: Toxic Release and Dispersion Models 185 5-1 Parameters Affecting Dispersion 186 5-2 Neutrally Buoyant Dispersion Models 190 5-3 Dense Gas Dispersion 209 5-4 Dense Gas Transition to Neutrally Buoyant Gas 219 5-5 Toxic Effect Criteria 225 5-6 Effect of Release Momentum and Buoyancy 233 5-7 Release Mitigation 234 Suggested Reading 235 Problems 236 Chapter 6: Fires and Explosions 245 6-1 The Fire Triangle 245 6-2 Distinction between Fires and Explosions 247 6-3 Definitions 247 6-4 Flammability Characteristics of Liquids and Vapors 249 6-5 Limiting Oxygen Concentration and Inerting 260 6-6 Flammability Diagram 262 6-7 Ignition Energy 270 6-8 Autoignition 270 6-9 Auto-Oxidation 271 6-10 Adiabatic Compression 272 6-11 Ignition Sources 273 6-12 Sprays and Mists 274 6-13 Explosions 275 Suggested Reading 304 Problems 305 Chapter 7: Concepts to Prevent Fires and Explosions 317 7-1 Inerting 318 7-2 Static Electricity 333 7-3 Controlling Static Electricity 356 7-4 Explosion-Proof Equipment and Instruments 363 7-5 Ventilation 367 7-6 Sprinkler Systems 370 7-7 Miscellaneous Concepts for Preventing Fires and Explosions 374 Suggested Reading 374 Problems 375 Chapter 8: Chemical Reactivity 381 8-1 Background Understanding 382 8-2 Commitment,Awareness, and Identification of Reactive Chemical Hazards 384 8-3 Characterization of Reactive Chemical Hazards Using Calorimeters 390 8-4 Controlling Reactive Hazards 416 Suggested Reading 418 Problems 418 Chapter 9: Introduction to Reliefs 429 9-1 Relief Concepts 430 9-2 Definitions 432 9-3 Location of Reliefs 433 9-4 Relief Types and Characteristics 436 9-5 Relief Scenarios 443 9-6 Data for Sizing Reliefs 444 9-7 Relief Systems 444 Suggested Reading 452 Problems 453 Chapter 10: Relief Sizing 459 10-1 Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Liquid Service 460 10-2 Conventional Spring-Operated Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service 466 10-3 Rupture Disc Reliefs in Liquid Service 470 10-4 Rupture Disc Reliefs in Vapor or Gas Service 471 10-5 Two-Phase Flow during Runaway Reaction Relief 472 10-6 Pilot-Operated and Bucking-Pin Reliefs 481 10-7 Deflagration Venting for Dust and Vapor Explosions 481 10-8 Venting for Fires External to Process Vessels 488 10-9 Reliefs for Thermal Expansion of Process Fluids 492 Suggested Reading 496 Problems 497 Chapter 11: Hazards Identification 505 11-1 Process Hazards Checklists 508 11-2 Hazards Surveys 508 11-3 Hazards and Operability Studies 524 11-4 Safety Reviews 530 11-5 Other Methods 537 Suggested Reading 538 Problems 538 Chapter 12: Risk Assessment 549 12-1 Review of Probability Theory 550 12-2 Event Trees 564 12-3 Fault Trees 569 12-4 QRA and LOPA 577 Suggested Reading 588 Problems 588 Chapter 13: Safety Procedures and Designs 597 13-1 Process Safety Hierarchy 598 13-2 Managing Safety 599 13-3 Best Practices 600 13-4 Procedures-Operating 600 13-5 Procedures-Permits 601 13-6 Procedures-Safety Reviews and Accident Investigations 603 13-7 Designs for Process Safety 604 13-8 Miscellaneous Designs for Fires and Explosions 615 13-9 Designs for Runaway Reactions 615 13-10 Designs for Handling Dusts 616 Suggested Reading 617 Problems 618 Chapter 14: Case Histories 621 14-1 Static Electricity 622 14-2 Chemical Reactivity 626 14-3 System Designs 631 14-4 Procedures 637 14-5 Training 642 14-6 Conclusion 645 Suggested Reading 646 Problems 646 Appendix A: Unit Conversion Constants 649 Appendix B: Flammability Data for Selected Hydrocarbons 653 Appendix C: Detailed Equations for Flammability Diagrams 659 Equations Useful for Gas Mixtures 659 Equations Useful for Placing Vessels into and out of Service 664 Appendix D: Formal Safety Review Report for Example 10-4 669 Appendix E: Saturation Vapor Pressure Data 679 Appendix F: Special Types of Reactive Chemicals 681 Appendix G: Hazardous Chemicals Data for a Variety of Chemical Substances 687 Index 695