Preface to the First Edition xii Preface to the Second Edition xv IPA Chart xvii The Greek Alphabet xviii Introduction: The Scope and Purpose of This Book 1 Part I Ancient Greek: From Mycenae to the Roman Empire 7 1 The Ancient Greek Dialects 9 1.1 The Coming of the ‘Greeks’ to Greece 9 1.2 The Earliest Records: Mycenaean Greek 10 1.3 Greek Dialect Relations and the Place of Mycenaean 13 1.4 Some Examples 24 1.4.1 Some basic dialect characteristics 24 1.4.2 West Greek 28 (a) Laconian 28 (b) Cretan 29 (c) Elean 30 (d) Phocian 31 1.4.3 Aeolic 32 (a) Boeotian 32 (b) Thessalian 33 (c) Lesbian 34 1.4.4 East Greek 36 (a) Arcadian 36 (b) Ionic 37 (c) Attic 40 2 Classical Greek: Official and Literary ‘Standards’ 43 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 The Language of Homer and its Influence 44 2.2.1 Ionian epic 44 2.2.2 Ionian elegy and iambus 49 2.2.3 Personal lyric 50 2.2.4 Choral lyric 53 2.2.5 Athenian drama 56 2.3 Official and Literary Ionic 60 3 The Rise of Attic 67 3.1 Attic as a Literary Standard 67 3.2 ‘Great Attic’ as an Administrative Language 73 4 Greek in the Hellenistic World 79 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 The Koine as an Extension of Great Attic 80 4.3 The Impact and Status of the Koine 83 4.4 The Fate of the Ancient Greek Dialects 84 4.4.1 Introduction 84 4.4.2 Koineization: the case of Boeotian 84 4.4.3 Doric koines: Tsakonian 87 4.5 The Koine in the Hellenistic Kingdoms 88 4.6 The Koine as an Official Language 89 4.6.1 Introduction 89 4.6.2 Macedonian Koine: the development of infinitival constructions 90 4.6.3 The articular infinitive 94 4.7 Language and Literature in the Hellenistic World: The Koine as a Literary Dialect 96 4.7.1 Introduction 96 4.7.2 Historiography: Polybius 97 4.7.3 The Koine as the language of technical prose 98 4.7.4 Reaction against the Koine: Hellenistic poetry 98 4.7.5 Reaction against the Koine: Asianism and Atticism 99 4.7.6 Popular literature: romances 100 4.7.7 Drama: the ‘new’ Attic comedy and the mime 101 4.7.8 Jewish literature: the Septuagint 106 4.8 Clitic Pronouns and the Shift Towards VS Word Order 108 4.9 Analogical Pressure on the Strong Aorist Paradigm 109 4.10 The Spoken Koine: Regional Diversity 110 4.10.1 Introduction 110 4.10.2 Egypt 111 4.10.3 Asia Minor 113 4.11 Private Inscriptions and Papyri: Some Major Trends 114 4.11.1 Introduction: datives, future periphrases, the nom-acc plural of consonant-stems 114 4.11.2 Phonological developments 117 4.11.3 Other morphological developments: partial merger of the 1st and 3rd declensions 120 4.12 Conclusion 122 5 Greek in the Roman Empire 124 5.1 Roman Domination 124 5.2 The Fate of Greek 125 5.3 The Impact of Bilingualism: Greek and Latin in Contact 126 5.4 Roman Attitudes to Greek Culture 132 5.5 Atticism and the Second Sophistic 133 5.6 Atticist Grammars and Lexica: Aelius Aristides 137 5.7 The Official Koine in the Roman Republican Period 141 5.8 Past-Tense Morphology 143 5.9 Official Writing of the Roman Imperial Period 144 5.10 ‘Colloquial’ Literature 146 5.10.1 Epictetus 146 5.10.2 The New Testament 147 5.11 Later Christian Literature: Stylistic Levels 152 5.11.1 The Apostolic Fathers 152 5.11.2 The impact of Atticism 155 5.11.3 Callinicus and Theodoret 156 6 Spoken Koine in the Roman Period 160 6.1 Introduction 160 6.2 Summary of the Principal Developments in the Vowel System 160 6.3 Some Illustrative Examples 163 6.3.1 Athenian Attic 163 6.3.2 Egyptian Koine 165 6.4 The Development of the Consonant System 170 6.5 Some Egyptian Texts 172 6.5.1 Letter 1: clitic pronouns and word order, control verbs with i{na ['ina]-complements 172 6.5.2 Letter 2: ‘short’ 2nd-declension forms, the merger of aorist and perfect 174 6.5.3 Letter 3: the decline of 3rd-declension participles 178 6.5.4 Letter 4: the decline of the dative 183 6.6 Conclusion 187 Part II Byzantium: From Constantine I to Mehmet the Conqueror 189 7 Historical Prelude 191 7.1 The Later Roman Empire 191 7.2 The Age of Transition: Ioustinianós and the Arab Conquests 194 7.3 The Middle Byzantine Period: Iconoclasm, Renaissance and Decline 197 7.4 The Late Byzantine Period: Stabilization, Defeat and Fall 200 8 Greek in the Byzantine Empire: The Major Issues 207 8.1 Introduction 207 8.2 Greek and Other Languages in the Early Byzantine Period 207 8.3 The Prestige of Greek 210 8.4 Greek in the Later Empire 212 8.4.1 Introduction 212 8.4.2 Byzantine Atticism 213 8.4.3 The first experiments with the vernacular 214 8.4.4 The vernacular literature of the 14th and 15th centuries 216 8.4.5 The romances 217 8.4.6 Other vernacular material 219 8.5 ‘The Koine’ in Byzantium 220 8.5.1 The inheritance from antiquity 220 8.5.2 Academic and ecclesiastical Greek 220 8.5.3 Official and administrative Greek 221 8.5.4 Practical writing in the middle period 222 8.5.5 Chronicles 222 8.5.6 Christian exegetical literature and hagiography 225 8.5.7 A new written standard in the later empire 226 8.6 The Balkan Sprachbund: Future Formations 227 8.7 Conclusion 229 9 Byzantine Belles Lettres 231 9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 The Early Period: Prokópios (First Half of the 6th Century) 231 9.3 The Middle Period: Michaél Psellós (1018–1078 or 1096) 233 9.4 The Modal Imperfect 237 9.5 The Late Period: Anna Komnené (1083–c.1153) 238 9.6 After the Fall: Michaél Kritóboulos (15th Century) 240 9.7 Conclusion 242 10 The Written Koine in Byzantium 244 10.1 Introduction 244 10.2 Chronicles in the Early and Middle Periods 245 10.2.1 Malálas (c.491–c.578): generics 245 10.2.2 Theophánes the Confessor (c.760–818) 251 10.3 Hagiography and Exegetical Works 253 10.3.1 Ioánnes Móschos (c.550–619) 253 10.3.2 St Germanós (c.640–733) 256 10.4 Paraenetic Literature of the Middle Period 258 10.4.1 Konstantínos VII Porphyrogénnetos (905–59) 258 10.4.2 Kekauménos (11th century) 262 10.5 The Metaphrases of the Palaiologan Period 264 10.6 Academic Greek in the Late Period: Máximos Planoúdes (c.1255–c.1305) 268 10.7 Official Greek of the Later Empire 270 10.8 Conclusion 271 11 Spoken Greek in the Byzantine Empire: The Principal Developments 273 11.1 Introduction 273 11.2 The Completion of Sound Changes Beginning in Antiquity 274 11.3 Grammatical Consequences of Aphaeresis 277 11.4 Old and New Patterns of Subordination: Clitic Pronouns and VSO Order 277 11.5 Dialect Diversity in Medieval Greek 281 11.6 Later Phonetic and Phonological Developments 281 11.7 Nominal Morphology and Syntax 284 11.7.1 The dative case, prepositional phrases 284 11.7.2 Feminine nouns of the 1st declension: paradigm standardization 285 11.7.3 Masculine nouns of the 1st declension: paradigm standardization 286 11.7.4 Interplay between the 1st and 3rd declensions: imparisyllabic paradigms 286 11.7.5 Neuters 288 11.7.6 The definite article 289 11.7.7 Adjectives 289 11.7.8 Pronouns 292 (a) Indefinite pronouns 292 (b) Interrogative pronouns 293 (c) Relative pronouns 293 (d) Demonstrative pronouns 295 (e) Personal pronouns 296 11.8 Verb Morphology and Syntax 296 11.8.1 The infinitive 296 11.8.2 Participles 297 11.8.3 Futures and conditionals, pluperfects and perfects 298 11.8.4 The spread of k-aorists: the aorist passive 302 11.8.5 Imperfective stem formation 303 (a) The fate of the -mi [-mi] verbs 303 (b) Nasal suffixes 305 (c) The suffixes -avzw [-'azo]/-ivzw [-'izo] 307 (d) The suffix -euvw [-'evo] and its influence: verbs in -ptw [-pto] 312 (e) The contract verbs 313 11.8.6 Personal endings 316 (a) Indicative and subjunctive 317 (b) Past-tense morphology: active and aorist middle/ passive; the augment 318 (c) The active paradigm: present tense 319 (d) The middle/passive paradigm: present tense 320 (e) The middle/passive paradigm: the imperfect 320 11.9 Conclusion 323 12 Texts in the ‘Vernacular’ 325 12.1 The Early and Middle Periods 325 12.1.1 Introduction 325 12.1.2 The Protobulgarian inscriptions 325 12.1.3 Acclamations: origins of the ‘political’ verse form 327 12.2 Vernacular Literature of the 12th Century 333 12.2.1 The epic of Digenés Akrítes 333 12.2.2 Ptochopródromos 337 12.3 The 14th and 15th Centuries: The Palaiologan Court and Frankish Rule 342 12.3.1 The original romances of the Palaiologan period 342 12.3.2 Greek–Romance contact: perfects/pluperfects, negative polarity, clitics 345 12.3.3 The Chronicle of the Morea 349 12.3.4 The translated romances 357 12.4 The First Dialect Literature: Cyprus and Crete 360 12.4.1 Introduction 360 12.4.2 Early dialect literature in Cyprus: Machairás’ chronicle 362 12.4.3 Early vernacular literature in Crete 366 12.5 Conclusion 368 Part III Modern Greek: From the Ottoman Empire to the European Union 371 13 Ottoman Rule and the War of Independence 373 13.1 The Early Years 373 13.2 Ottoman Decline 374 13.3 Revolution and Independence 377 14 Spoken Greek in the Ottoman Period 379 14.1 The Impact of Turkish 379 14.2 The Spoken Dialects of Modern Greek 381 14.2.1 Introduction: diversification, and the basis for a modern spoken standard 381 14.2.2 Local vernaculars in the central region; Sofianós’ grammar and the educated standard 384 14.2.3 Greek in the west: the South Italian dialects 388 14.2.4 Greek in the south and south-east: the Dodecanese, Cyprus and Crete 391 14.2.5 Greek in the east: Pontus and Cappadocia 398 14.2.6 The northern dialects 404 14.3 Popular Culture in the Turkish Period: The Folk Songs 406 15 Written Greek in the Turkish Period 413 15.1 Continuity 413 15.2 The Impact of the Enlightenment 419 15.3 Contemporary ‘Demotic’ 423 15.4 The Roots of the ‘Language Question’ 426 16 The History of the Modern Greek State 428 16.1 Irredentism: Triumph and Disaster 428 16.2 Dictatorship and War 431 16.3 Recovery, the Colonels and the Restoration of Democracy 433 17 The ‘Language Question’ and its Resolution 438 17.1 Koraís 438 17.2 The Roots of Demoticism: Solomós and the Ionian Islands 442 17.3 The Rise of Katharévousa 445 17.4 Reaction: Psycháris and the Demoticist Programme 446 17.5 The Progress of Demoticism 454 17.6 The 20th Century: Crisis and Resolution 456 17.7 Standard Modern Greek 462 17.8 A Range of Styles 466 Bibliography 471 Index 493

"Highly recommended. Lower-division undergraduates through faculty; general readers." Choice "…one of Horrocks' greatest achievements is the skill with which he demonstrates the special value of the history of Greek, thinking about the Greek language in terms of breadth and depth that are unusual among linguists working on Greek." Bryn Mawr Classical Review "Horrocks offers an exemplary, and unique, survey of the development of the Greek language from its Mycenaean beginnings to the present day, with a particular emphasis on the reasons for Greek's linguistic conservatism. Widely read and much praised in its first edition, this expanded and revised second edition is to be recommended even more highly to all those interested in Greek of any period." Elizabeth Jeffreys, University of Oxford Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers traces the trajectory of the Greek language from the Mycenaean period of the second millennium BC to the current day. Widely celebrated upon its original release, this greatly expanded Second Edition explores the evolution of the Greek language in its regional and social heterogeneity and in both its spoken and written forms. Beginning in the ancient world with the emergence and dominance of the Attic dialect in the 5th and 4th centuries BC, the book goes on to examine the subsequent development of the language during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. The text explores the tension between written varieties and evolving forms of the vernacular and the resultant 2000 years of diglossia – the ever-growing gulf between what was said and what was written, and the linguistic consequences. Other topics addressed include the ancient Greek dialects, epigraphic and literary; the impact of the adoption of Greek by the Macedonians, Romans, and as a lingua franca in the East; the role of Greek in the development of Latin and modern European languages; and the position of different forms of Greek in the medieval Byzantine state. Finally, more recent problems of establishing a standard language and education system in the independent Greek state that emerged in the early 19th century are revealed, as well as the ongoing legacy of diglossia into the 1970s. Unmatched in breadth of material and scholarly rigor, Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers, Second Edition, remains the essential resource on the development of the Greek language.

"Highly recommended. Lower-division undergraduates through faculty; general readers." (Choice, 1 February 2011) "…one of Horrocks' greatest achievements is the skill with which he demonstrates the special value of the history of Greek, thinking about the Greek language in terms of breadth and depth that are unusual among linguists working on Greek." (Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 9 May 2011)

“The only proper history of Greek from the earliest evidence up to the present day, Horrocks’s book is a major achievement and fills a large scholarly and pedagogical gap.” Joshua T. Katz, Princeton University "Horrocks has outdone himself. The 1st edition was as good an overview of the entire history of Greek as there is, yet this 2nd edition improves on that, with added material on all periods of Greek. This important work is well-written, informative, and interesting." Brian D. Joseph, The Ohio State University “Horrocks offers an exemplary, and unique, survey of the development of the Greek language from its Mycenaean beginnings to the present day, with a particular emphasis on the reasons for Greek’s linguistic conservatism. Widely read and much praised in its first edition, this expanded and revised second edition is to be recommended even more highly to all those interested in Greek of any period. Elizabeth Jeffreys, University of Oxford