List of Contributors xvii
Preface xix

1 Introduction 1
M. R. Riazi and Harvey W. Yarranton

1.1 Historical Perspective on Petroleum 2
1.2 Future Demand for Petroleum and Its Products 5
1.3 Petroleum Production 9
1.4 Petroleum Refining 12

Part I Cleaner Petroleum Production 23

2 Carbon Capture, Storage, and Enhanced Oil Recovery 25
Eduardo Manrique

2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 CCUS: Main Steps 26
2.3 Geologic CO2 Storage 28
2.4 Enhanced Oil Recovery 30
2.5 CCUS: Challenges and General Economics 38
2.6 Closing Remarks 55

3 Fugitive Methane Emissions 77
Stuart Riddick

3.1 Methane Oil and Gas Emission Sources 77
3.2 Methane 79
3.3 Micrometeorology 81
3.4 Methane Emission Quantification Methodologies 86
3.5 Measuring Methane Concentrations 95
3.6 Full System Solutions 101
3.7 Challenges and Needs for Future Work 101

4 Technologies to Reduce GHG Emissions from Heavy Oil Production 117
Dr. Bruce S. Carey

4.1 Introduction 117
4.2 Current Commercial Thermal Methods 122
4.3 New Solvent-based Recovery Processes with Improved Environmental Metrics 133
4.4 Other Recovery and Associated GHG Intensity Reduction Technologies 163
4.5 Summary of GHG Reduction Estimates 177
4.6 Key Takeaways and Concluding Comments 177

5 Energy Intensity in Mineable Oil Sands 189
Danuta M. Sztukowski and Elco D. Hollander

5.1 Introduction to Mineable Oil Sands 189
5.2 Evolution of Process Flowsheets 196
5.3 Continuous Improvement Opportunities 212
5.4 Step-out Technologies 221
5.5 Concluding Remarks 225

6 Tailings and Waste Management in Mineable Oil Sands 233
Elco D. Hollander and Danuta M. Sztukowski

6.1 Introduction to Tailings and Waste Management 233
6.2 Tailings Mass Balance and Waste Material Types 236
6.3 The Tailings Management Challenge 243
6.4 Tailings Technology Trade-offs 253
6.5 Technologies Deployed 257
6.6 Concluding Remarks 267

Part II Cleaner Petroleum Refining 275

7 Refining of Unconventional and Heavy Oil 277
M. R. Riazi and Dicho Stratiev

7.1 Introduction 277
7.2 Heavy and Extra Heavy Oil Refining Technologies 277
7.3 Shale Oil Production and Processing 309

8 Petroleum Refining with Deep Conversion and Deep Desulfurization 333
George Hoekstra, Marcio Wagner da Silva, and Thomas Murphy

8.1 Heavy Oil Process Overview 333
8.2 A Closer Look at Heavy Oil Upgrading Reactors and Catalysts 338
8.3 Economic Analysis of Gasoline Sulfur Reduction Investment 349

9 Hydrogen Production Using Renewable Feedstock 363
Gabriela Nascimento da Silva, Clarissa Bergman-Fonte, Pedro R. R. Rochedo, Frédéric Lantz, and Alexandre Szklo

9.1 Introduction 363
9.2 Hydrogen Production in Oil Refineries 367
9.3 Hydrogen Produced from Water Electrolysis 370
9.4 Conclusion 375

10 Closer Integration Between Refining and Petrochemical Assets and Their Role in the Future of the Downstream Industry 383
Marcio Wagner da Silva, George Hoekstra, and Thomas Murphy

10.1 Introduction and Context 383
10.2 What Is the Petrochemical Integration Concept? 385
10.3 The Crude Oil to Chemicals – Maximum Added Value to the Processed Crude 387
10.4 Available Crude-to-chemicals Routes 400
10.5 Refining Technologies and Relatively Low-cost Alternatives to Integration 402
10.6 Closing the Sustainability Cycle – Plastics Recycling Technologies 406
10.7 Conclusion 407

11 Greening Existing Petroleum Refineries via Biomass Processing 411
Clarissa Bergman-Fonte, Aline T. Carvalho, Gabriela Nascimento da Silva, Pedro R. R. Rochedo, Frédéric Lantz, and Alexandre Szklo

11.1 Introduction 411
11.2 General Concepts 412
11.3 Oily Crops, Used Cooking Oils, Residual Fats 414
11.4 Lignocellulosic Biomass 420
11.5 Sugary and Starchy Biomass 427
11.6 Opportunities and Challenges for Biomass Co-processing – A Case Study Application 428
11.7 Conclusion 434

12 Liquid Fuels from Syngas and CO2 443
Chike George Okoye-Chine and B. Frank Gupton

12.1 Introduction 443
12.2 Syngas Production 444
12.3 Liquid Fuel Production from Syngas via FT Synthesis 456
12.4 Conversion of CO2 into Liquid Fuels 459
12.5 Conclusion 466

13 Syngas Production Beyond Petroleum Feedstock Toward LCA 481
Amol A. Inamdar, Francisco O. Aguirre, Olubayo O. Oginni, Heidi A. Taboada, and Lucy Mar Camacho

13.1 Introduction 481
13.2 Other Syngas Production Pathways 482
13.3 Valuable Syngas Subproducts and Their Environmental Footprint 483
13.4 Feedstock Alternatives for Syngas Production 485
13.5 Process Optimizations to Improve Environmental Performance 488
13.6 Environmental Impact of Syngas Production 490
13.7 Life Cycle Assessment of Syngas Production 494
13.8 Final Considerations from Syngas LCA 498

14 Investment Required for Upgrading Petroleum Refineries – Simplified Approach 507
Thomas Murphy, George Hoekstra, and Marcio Wagner da Silva

14.1 Introduction 508
14.2 Derivatives 510
14.3 Model Risk 513
14.4 Quantitative Models 515
14.5 Model Audits and Critique 516
14.6 Systems Thinking 517
14.7 Assessment of Model Risk Fits into a DSM Framework 520
14.8 Real Option Strategy Assessment Example – Evaluating CTL Technology 521
14.9 Environmental Compliance: Environmental Credits and Offsets 526
14.10 Conclusion 527

Index 529

Reduce environmental impacts across petroleum production, refining, and fuel use

Liquid fuel demand is projected to increase by more than 20% over the next three decades, yet petroleum remains the prime source of manmade carbon and methane greenhouse emissions. Cleaner Petroleum Production and Refining Technologies addresses this tension directly, detailing methods to produce and refine crude oils and gas into quality fuels while minimizing environmental impacts throughout the entire production-to-consumption chain.

This edited volume includes authoritative discussions of carbon capture and storage, fugitive methane emissions reduction, and technologies to reduce energy intensity and green house gas emissions for heavy oil production and oil sands operations. It examines refinery reconfiguration to convert carbon residuals into middle distillates and light olefins for petrochemical feed, gas-to-liquid processes including Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, and the use of renewable feedstock in hydrogen production.

Key topics include:

• Production and processing technology for oil and gas with specific focus on pollution minimization during production, processing, and fuel consumption
• Integration of refinery with petrochemical plant processes providing alternative pathways when demand for petroleum-based fuels declines
• Gas-to-liquid processes including Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to produce liquid fuels from syngas or CO₂ for middle distillate production
• Deep conversion and desulfurization technologies alongside renewable feedstock applications for more sustainable hydrogen production in refineries
• Identification of prospects, issues, and gaps in the path toward more sustainable petroleum production, refining, and consumption

Cleaner Petroleum Production and Refining Technologies serves engineers, scientists, and managers in the petroleum production and refining industries, as well as researchers at government organizations and research centers. University faculty and students working in petroleum production and processing will also find this volume a substantive technical reference.