Introduction: Bulgaria on the Global Cultural Scene of the 1970s
1. The Contradictions of Developed Socialism
2. Goodwill between Neighbors
3. Culture as a Way of Life
4. Forging a Diaspora
5. Like a Grand World Civilization
6. Culture under Special Conditions
Epilogue: The Socialist Past Today

Dragostinova's thoughtful and accessible book tells a fascinating story about the importance of cultural diplomacy and international soft power politics. It will radically reshape the way historians and anthropologists understand the role of small states during the Cold War.

Index Page numbers followed by letter f refer to figures. 24th May celebrations, 29, 71; in India, 263n4; in West Germany, 147, 153 1000 Years of Bulgarian Icons exhibition, 36, 111–12, 114, 115f, 116, 189; ambiguous attitude toward religion and, 139; civilizational message of, 97, 112; "complex events" accompanying, 117–18 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary, 2–3, 40–48; "all-people's celebration" in Sofia, 94; and assimilation campaigns, 225; and Balkan neighbors, 63–66, 70, 77–84, 87–88, 90–94; celebrations in Greece, 88, 90–94; celebrations in India, 163, 189–90; celebrations in Mexico, 163, 190, 191; celebrations in Nigeria, 195, 196, 216, 217–18; celebrations in U.S., 120, 142–45, 156; celebrations in Western countries, 97, 119–21; celebrations in West Germany, 119, 147; complex events associated with, 42, 47, 48, 65, 82, 120, 156, 189–90, 196–97, 214; and cultural nationalism, 40, 60, 61, 223–24; cultural shortages associated with, 48, 97, 109, 165, 187, 189, 192; and diaspora, 45, 47, 131, 132–33, 140, 142–45, 148–49, 161; domestic and international dimensions of, 3–4, 43–48; and East-West cultural cooperation, 108, 109; FESTAC 77 compared to, 210, 211; films shown during celebrations of, 64; as focal point of cultural outreach, 35; and folk performances, 45f, 94, 156; ideological objectives of, 41, 110–11, 224; international reactions to, 5–6; logo for, 47f; models for, 43–47; patriotic objectives of, 40, 41, 71; poster for, 4f; preparations for, 40, 41–42; Romanian response to, 77–80; Soviet response to, 23, 52, 193; Turkish response to, 87–88; and universal civilizational ideas, 46; Yugoslav response to, 81, 82–84; Zhivkova and, 36, 41, 42, 52, 110, 227; Zhivkov on, 22, 43 1300 Years Bulgaria exhibition, 43 1300 Years Bulgaria Monument, Sofia, xi, 43, 44f, 227–30, 228f; monument replacing, 228–29, 229f 1970s: contradictory spirit of, 17; cultural innovation in, 34–35; Eastern European perspective on, 16, 19; East-West relations in, 100–106; and globalization, 9, 15, 18; sociopolitical developments in Bulgaria in, 27–30; and Third World solidarity, 14, 16; Three Worlds model during, 16–17; time span of, 18–19; Western perspectives on, 15, 16 2000 Years of Nigerian Art exhibition, 210, 216 aesthetic education: concept of, 25, 34; events focusing on, 38. See also beauty Afghanistan, Soviet invasion of, 18, 105, 178 Africa: Bulgarian attitude toward, 208–9; Bulgarian cultural events in, 164, 233n3; Bulgarian involvement in, xii, xvi, 18, 170, 171, 198–202; Eastern European cooperation with, 203, 207–8; educational exchanges with, 201, 206; Soviet aid to, 197, 202; as Third World, 167; Western aid to, 201. See also specific countries Age of Shakespeare exhibition, 123, 124 Albania, 67, 94, 177, 243n11 Al Bano (Albano Carrisi), 11 Algeria, 12, 167, 171, 172, 199 Angola, 12, 170, 171, 199, 200, 201, 202 anniversary celebrations: in Bulgaria, 36; in Eastern Europe, 60; in Iran, 45–46, 47; rival, in Balkans, 76–77; in Romania, 46, 60, 75, 76–77, 78; in U.S., 46, 47. See also 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary anti-imperialism/anti-neocolonialism, rhetoric of, 170–71, 197, 219 Appadurai, Arjun, 12 Apter, Andrew, 198, 209, 210, 211 Arab countries, Bulgarian cultural events in, 164, 172, 233n3 Argentina, 13, 172 Asia: Bulgarian cultural events in, 164, 233n3; as Third World, 167; Zhivkova's tour of, 184. See also specific countries Asparuh, Khan, 40; films about, xi, 43, 225 Association of Bulgarian Writers and Artists in Exile, 132, 157 Atanasov, Ivan, 10f, 196, 212, 213, 214, 215, 215f, 216, 217, 218, 218f Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 87 Austria: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 119, 120; Bulgarian relations with, 102–3, 105; criticism of Bulgarian power elites, 58; cultural exchanges with Bulgaria, 11–12, 113, 114–16; as mediator in East-West relationship, 102 Bagriana, Elisaveta, 55 Balkans: Bulgarian cultural programs in, 63–66, 70, 88, 90–95; Cold War in, 66–70, 95; culture as strategy for regional cooperation in, 66, 94–95; French involvement in, 103; Macedonian question in, 62–63, 64, 71, 72–73, 80, 81–85, 139, 143; NATO members in, 67–68; nuclear-weapons-free zone (NWFZ) initiative in, 94–95; regional cooperation projects in, 67, 69–70, 94; rival interpretations of history in, 70, 71–76, 77, 78, 79, 94; Western influence in, 68. See also specific countries Banner of Peace International Children's Assemblies (1979, 1981), xi, 1, 11, 11f, 38, 39f, 186, 213, 226 Banner of Peace Monument (The Bells), xi, 11f, 38 BANU. See Bulgarian Agrarian National Union Batak Massacre, 149 Batoev, Dimitar, 145 BBC: Bulgarian section of, 55, 57, 137, 141, 146; and film on Thracian art, 117 beauty: celebration of, xii; Zhivkova's concept of, 25, 34, 38, 122, 127, 190 Belgium, anniversary celebration in, 44, 46 Bell, John, 120 The Bells monument (Banner of Peace Monument), xi, 11f, 38 BKP. See Bulgarian Communist Party Blecha, Karl, 120 Bochev, Dimitar, 141 Bockman, Johanna, 168 Bokova, Irina, 225 Bolton, Jonathan, 134 Borba (magazine), 137, 138f, 157 Boris III (King of Bulgaria), 242n150 Borisov, Boyko, 230 Brandt, Willy, 101, 103 Bren, Paulina, 16 Brezhnev, Leonid: intellectuals recruited by, 32; rapprochement under, 107; and Soviet involvement in Third World, 167; visit to Yugoslavia, 68; and Zhivkov, 18, 26, 28, 67, 170 Britain: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 23, 119–20; Bulgarian cultural outreach to, 12, 116, 117, 120–21; on Bulgarian policy in Africa, 18, 170; evaluation of Bulgarian society in 1970s, 24–25; evaluation of Zhivkov (Todor), 49; relations with Bulgaria, 104, 116, 119 British Council, 108 British Museum: reciprocity in cultural exchanges with, 127; Thracian Treasures exhibition at, 116 Brunnbauer, Ulf, 30, 133, 134, 257n4 Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BANU), in exile, 137, 140, 154 Bulgarian Committee for the Defense of Human Rights, 138 Bulgarian Communist Party (BKP): 10th Congress of, 28; 90th anniversary of, 3, 41; Art, Culture, and Propaganda Department of, 32; and East-West cultural exchange, 108; embrace of "patriotism" by, 29; history of, merging history of Bulgaria with, 41; monument commemorating 90th anniversary of, 230, 231f; Zhivkov as secretary of, 26 Bulgarian Cultural-Informational Center(s): in New Delhi, 172, 185, 189–90, 266n59; in Nigeria, proposal for, 213; in Vienna, 114 Bulgarian Diocese of North America and Australia, 139, 140 Bulgarian-Indian Friendship Societies, 162, 163, 185, 185f, 189, 263n2, 263n4, 269n108 Bulgarian National Committee, U.S., 137 Bulgarian National Council, U.S., 137, 140, 143, 157 Bulgarian National Front, U.S., 137, 143, 157; magazine published by, 137, 138f, 157 Bulgarian-Nigerian Friendship Societies, 213, 216, 218 Bulgarian Orthodox Church: communist regime and, 139–40; U.S. congregations splitting from, 143 Bulgarian Scientific Research Center on Africa and Asia (NITsAA), 200 Bulgarian Social-Democratic Party, 137 Bulgars (Proto-Bulgarians), 40, 74, 239n71 Burebista, 2050th anniversary of, 46, 60, 75 Buzludzha, Home Monument of the Party on, 230, 231f Caldwell, Erskine, 1, 37, 120 Callaghan, Jim, 104 Canada: cultural outreach to, 12, 119; èmigrè communities in, 137, 138, 150, 157, 158 Captive Nations Committee, 157 Carter, Jimmy, 104, 105, 205, 227 Castro, Fidel, 15, 227 Ceausescu, Elena, 51 Ceausescu, Nicolae, 51, 66; legitimization of regime of, 60, 76; and regional cooperation initiatives, 69; and Zhivkov, 77, 80 Chaban-Delmas, Jacques, 119 Charles, Ray, 1, 11, 38 Charter 77, 56, 96 Chary, Frederick, 120 Chervenkov, Vâlko, 26 Children in Bulgaria exhibition, 195, 213, 274n91 Children's Assemblies. See International Children's Assemblies China: Albania and, 67; Roerich in, 37; Romania and, 66, 77; Soviet policies regarding, 28, 167 civilizational rhetoric, of Bulgarian cultural outreach, 46, 97, 112; to developing countries, 165–66, 169, 172, 183, 194, 201, 220; to Western countries, 97, 99–100, 110, 112, 113, 118–19 Clarke, James, 120 Clifford, James, 160, 258n8 Cold War: alternative models of globalization during, 14, 168, 177–78, 181, 193, 194, 197, 198; in Balkans, 66–70, 95; cultural diplomacy during, 106–7; cultural outreach in context of, 2–3, 8, 95, 103, 193–94; culture during, importance of studying, 7; France's role in, 103; importance of small states in, 2, 5–8, 14, 17–18, 67, 169, 172–73, 194, 198, 204, 208, 220–21, 224, 232; multilateral initiatives in, superpowers' distrust of, 68, 69; as multipolar conflict, 166; and Nonaligned Movement, 66, 167, 168, 178, 179; peripheral actors in, importance of, 6–7, 163–64, 193; reciprocity principle in cultural contacts during, 106, 109, 121–27; renewal in early 1980s, 18, 102, 105–6, 107, 130; templates for socialist events during, 10; and Third World, 166, 177, 179, 267n69. See also détente Colombia, 180 colony, èmigrès as, 136–37 Committee for Arts and Culture (KIK), 31, 32, 33–34, 53 Committee for Culture (KK), 34; and 1300 Years Bulgaria celebrations, 42; and bilateral agreements for cultural cooperation, 108, 184; on Bulgarian-U.S. cultural cooperation, 110; Iordanov and, 121; justification for cultural contacts with West, 109–10; Slavic Committee and, 155; Zhivkova and, 34 complex programs/events, 34, 35; 1300 Years Bulgaria celebrations and, 42, 47, 48, 65, 82, 120, 156, 189–90, 196–97, 214; in India, 189–90; in Nigeria, 196–97, 214; U.S. model for, 46, 47; in Western countries, 117–18, 120, 129, 156; West German, in Bulgaria, 126 Connelly, Matthew, 15 Constantine IV (Emperor of Byzantium), 40 constitution of 1971, 28, 29, 32 Contemporary Bulgarian Art exhibition, 114, 120–21; civilizational message of, 97; in Mexico City, 188f, 189 Cooper, Frederick, 203, 220 Cuba, 12, 167, 179, 180 cultural diplomacy: in Balkans, 63–64; breakthrough potential of, 94; during Cold War, 106–7; small states and, 6–7, 36, 48, 109, 224, 232; volatile function of, 65; in West, 97, 128–30 cultural globalization: in 1970s, 9, 15; limits of concept of, 12; state socialist societies and, 36 cultural internationalism/transnationalism, 7–8, 234n19 cultural nationalism, in Bulgaria, 29, 223; 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 40, 60, 61, 223–24; and diaspora, 134, 161; double-edged function of, 63, 71, 94; and ethnic cleansing, 225; as legitimization strategy, 60; postsocialist, 20, 232; promotion of, 33 cultural outreach: in Cold War context, 2–3, 8, 95, 103, 193–94; and late socialist regimes, perpetuation of, 21, 60 cultural outreach, Bulgarian: in 1960s, 107, 252n64; in 1970s, magnitude of, 2, 233n3; to Balkan states, 63–66, 70, 94–95; civilizational rhetoric of, 46, 97, 99–100, 110, 112, 113, 118–19, 165–66, 169, 172, 183, 194, 201, 220; contradictions in, 20–21, 223; core elements of, 8; and domestic legitimization, 8, 9, 19, 23, 222, 223, 224; elites as agents of, 9, 12, 25, 35; to èmigrès, 45, 47, 131, 132–33, 140–42; evolution of, 9–11; ideological objectives of, 9, 10–11, 99–100, 109–10, 113, 118–19; local and global dynamics of, 17, 25, 35, 222–24; long-term consequences of, 224–25; motivations for, 3–4, 6, 8, 164, 166, 170–73, 222, 223; reciprocity premise and, 106, 109, 121–27; representative exhibitions in, 36–37; reputational objectives of, 3, 4, 5, 6, 113, 171, 172, 177, 199; to Third World, 9, 12–15, 164, 170–73, 181–91, 194–99; to Western countries, 10–12, 14, 96–98, 107–11, 115–16, 118–20, 122–27. See also specific countries and events "cultural-propaganda events," 96, 107, 110 cultural shortages, 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 48, 97, 109, 165, 187, 189, 192 culture: conflicting views of, East vs. West, 98–99; under developed socialism, 32; and development, merging in East-South relations, 214, 217–21, 271n5; as discursive system, 8; and East-South relations, 164–65, 219–21; and economic development, state socialist notions of, 194, 196, 199; global, humanistic approach to, 36; and ideology, 8, 30, 33, 38–39, 99–100, 128–29, 224; and legitimization of socialist regimes, 8, 19, 23, 60, 76, 222, 223, 224; as method of communication across ideological divides, 130, 219; and propaganda, 30, 99, 106, 107, 110, 111, 128–29, 223, 224; real vs. mass, 99, 122; reorganization in 1970s, 36; and state socialism, 8, 9, 17, 36, 225–26 culture, Bulgarian: constitution of 1971 on, 32; golden age of, 153; postsocialist, 230–32; second golden age of, 38; state-directed, 38–40; Zhivkova and, 9, 25, 34–40 Cyprus, Turkish invasion of, 68, 76, 85, 86 Cyril (Cyril the Philosopher), Saint, 153; cultural program focusing on, 35; disciples of, 40. See also 24th May celebrations; Methodius, Saint Cyrillic script, 153 Czechoslovakia: Charter 77 in, 56, 96; and Third World outreach, 168; Warsaw Pact invasion of, 26, 31, 66, 69 Dacians, 245n40; Bulgarian-Romanian disputes regarding, 74, 75, 78 Dalchev, Liubomir, 55, 151, 158, 261n64 da Vinci, Leonardo, exhibition of masterworks by, 1, 35, 38, 124–25, 125f Davis, Angela, 1, 10, 37 Day of the Slavic Alphabet and Bulgarian Culture. See 24th May celebrations "Declaration 78," 56 defections, 31, 55, 57, 141, 151 de Gaule, Charles, 103 Delhi University, Bulgarian studies at, 185, 186, 186f, 192 Deng Xiaoping, 15 détente, 15, 100; and Bulgaria's cultural outreach, 17, 96; and developed socialism, 18; and East-West cultural exchange, 96, 99, 107; India's embrace of, 180; international crises threatening, 105–6; role of ideology in context of, 33; as strategy of political legitimization, 17, 54, 101–2 Deutsche Welle, Bulgarian section of, 137, 141, 146 developed capitalist states, 16, 102, 169. See also West/Western countries developed socialism (real socialism): contradictory experiences of, 39–40; and détente, 18; new attention to culture during, 32; new citizen of, 34, 35; normalization and acceptance of, 17, 25, 26, 30, 59–61, 161; personal experience of, xi–xiv, xvi; proclamation at 10th Congress of BKP, 28; success of, cultural events showcasing, 97; superiority of, struggle to claim, 128–29; use of term, xxi; Zhivkov's vision for, 22. See also late socialism developed socialist states, 169 developing countries, 169. See also Third World; specific countries development: alternative template for, 168–69; culture and, in East-South relations, 214, 217–21, 271n5; state socialist notions of, 194, 196, 199 diaspora, Bulgarian: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 45, 47, 131, 132–33, 140, 142–45, 148–49, 161; efforts to build, 131–34, 136, 140–49, 160–61. See also èmigrès diaspora, definition of, 160, 258n8 Dimitrov, Bozhidar, 230, 238n59 Dimitrov, Emil, 61, 242n150 Dimitrov, Georgi, 26 Dimitrov, G. M., 137 Dimitrova, Blaga, 55, 56 Dimovski, Boris, 56 dissident(s): Western image of, 158; Western support for, Eastern European perspective on, 96, 98 dissident movement, in Bulgaria: lack of, 23, 24–25, 54–59; policies undermining formation of, 23, 26, 55–56; Western media's search for, 56–57 Doĭnov, Ognian, 52 Dragoicheva, Tsola, 81 Dr. Petar Beron Academic Association, 147, 148 Dupond, Patrick, 11 Dzhagarov, Georgi, 53, 54, 118, 127–28 Eastern Europe: 1970s from perspective of, 16, 17; cultural outreach in context of Cold War, 103, 194; "differential approach" to, West and, 68, 102; Helsinki Final Act of 1975 from perspective of, 96, 98, 107; involvement in Third World, 14, 18, 167–68, 198, 203, 207–8; nationalism in, revival of, 70; official culture and perpetuation of regimes in, 21, 60; as periphery in Cold War, importance of, 6–7, 163–64, 193. See also East-South relations; East-West relations; specific countries East Germany (GDR): anniversary celebration in, 60–61; cultural exchanges with, 123, 127; international recognition of, 100, 101; Soviet policies regarding, 28, 98; and Third World outreach, 168, 203, 207 East-South relations: and alternative models of globalization, 177–78, 181, 193, 194; charting of, 163–65, 167–68, 179–80, 207–8; civilizational rhetoric of, 165–66, 169, 172, 183, 194, 201, 220; cultural-educational cooperation and, 181–83; culture as key driver of, 164–65, 219–21; economic and cultural considerations in, merging of, 214, 217–20; economic cooperation and, 180–81, 203, 207–8; after Helsinki Final Act, 263n11; Zhivkova's personal interests and, 175–77, 183, 187, 190–92, 193 East-West cultural exchange, 106–7; as battle for hearts and minds, 97, 128–30; Bulgarian contributions to, 96–97, 107–8; conflicting views of culture and, 98–99, 122; control over, 10–12, 14; détente and, 96, 99, 107; efforts to limit Western events, 97–98, 99, 121–24, 129; ideology and, 33, 109–10; intermediary role in, 102, 103; political importance of, 108; reciprocity premise of, 106, 109, 121–27; renewed Cold War (early 1980s) and, 107; tensions in, 97–99; Western countries' goals in, 129–30; Zhivkova and, 107–8, 127 East-West relations: key developments in 1970s, 100–106. See also Cold War; East-West cultural exchange Ecevit, Bülent, 86, 87 Echeverría, Luis, 176, 179, 182, 187 economic cooperation, in East-South relations, 180–81; cultural considerations and, 214, 217–20 economic development: culture and, state socialist notions of, 194, 196, 199. See also development economic reforms, discussions in 1979 Bulgaria, 27–28 educational exchanges, 13; with Africa, 201, 206; with India, 185, 186, 186f, 192. See also aesthetic education; students Egypt, 12, 167, 170, 199, 200 Elenkov, Ivan, 32, 34, 38, 61 elites: communist, and nationalism, 20, 60, 76; ruling, détente benefiting, 17, 54, 101–2. See also power elites, Bulgarian Elizabeth II (Queen of United Kingdom), 116 Ellwagen, West Germany, 153–54; bas relief of Methodius at, 153, 154f èmigrès, Bulgarian, 131–61; 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 45, 47, 131, 132–33, 140, 142–45, 148–49, 161; "hostile," 137, 141, 142, 146, 156–58, 160; "loyal," 140, 142, 143, 144, 155–56, 160; organizations of, 137–39; patriotism of, efforts to nurture, 134, 135, 142, 147–48; policies allowing return to Bulgaria, 136f, 260n40; religion and, 139–40; terms used for, 136–37; in U.S., 132, 137, 138, 142–45, 149–53, 155–60; in West Germany, 132, 145–48, 153–54. See also diaspora èmigrès, Macedonian, 258n16; Bulgarian state's outreach to, 139. See also Macedonian Patriotic Organization (MPO) Engerman, David, 166, 220 Ethiopia, 1, 12, 167, 170, 171, 199, 200, 201, 202 Evren, Kenan, 87 exhibitions, Bulgarian: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 43; civilizational message of, 97, 112, 113; "complex events" accompanying, 117–18; high-profile, international tours of, 36–37, 111–16; postsocialist, 230; and reciprocal visits, 123, 124–26, 125f, 210, 216; representative, 8, 36–37, 97, 111, 139, 210; in Third World, 10f, 188–89, 188f, 195–96, 213–14, 215f, 218f, 274n91; in Western countries, 111–16, 124. See also specific titles of exhibitions Eyo, Ekpo, 210 Fallen Soldier Memorial, Sofia, 228–29, 229f Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). See West Germany Feinberg, Melissa, 133 FESTAC 77, 203, 204, 205, 209–10, 211 films: Bulgarian, cultural nationalism and, xi, 43, 64, 225; Indian, showings in Bulgaria, 184; Western, showings in Bulgaria, 123, 124 First World, 16. See also developed capitalist states; West Fol, Alexander, 53, 74 folk ensembles: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 45f, 94, 156; performances in U.S., 116–17, 144, 145f, 155–56 France: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 119, 120; Bulgarian relations with, 103; criticism of Bulgarian power elites, 58; criticism of Soviet policies, 105; cultural exchanges with Bulgaria, 11–12, 114, 119, 120, 127–28; relations with Eastern Europe, 103 French, Patricia (Penka), 155–56, 262n70 FRG (Federal Republic of Germany). See West Germany Fulbright, John, 120, 156 Gabensky, Dora, 156–58, 159 Gabensky, Ivanko, 156 al-Gaddafi, Muammar, 1 Gallery for International Art, Sofia, 37, 226, 231–32 Gandhi, Indira, 174, 178–79; 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 190; cultural policies under, 5, 182–83; and principles of peaceful coexistence, 180; visit to Bulgaria, 163, 173; and Zhivkova, 13, 175–76, 175f, 177, 190, 192, 227 Ganev, Hristo, 55, 56, 240n111 Ganev, Ivan, 83–84 GDR (German Democratic Republic). See East Germany Genscher, Hans-Dietrich, 105, 126 Gerasimov, Bogomil, 266n59 German question: and East-West relations, 100–101. See also East Germany (GDR); West Germany (FRG) Ghana, 37, 167, 197, 198, 199 Ghodsee, Kristen, 14, 54, 198 Gigova, Irina, 39, 59 global economic crisis of 1973, 27 globalization: 1970s and, 9, 15, 18; alternative models of, Cold War and, 14, 168, 177–78, 181, 193, 194, 197, 198; and Bulgaria's cultural outreach, 17; socialist, 163–64, 168. See also cultural globalization Gochev, Gocho, 56, 240n111 Goethe Institute, 108, 126 Golden Orpheus Pop Music Festival, 1, 11 Goronwy-Roberts, Owen (Lord), 119–20, 129–30 Gowon, Yakubu, 203, 204 Gramsci, Antonio, 8 Great Britain. See Britain Great Bulgaria, 71, 73, 81, 83 Greece: Bulgarian cultural campaigns in, 64, 90–94; conflicts with Turkey, 67–68; military coups in, 68; and nuclear-weapons-free zone (NWFZ) initiative, 94–95; relations in 1960s, 69, 71, 73; relations in 1970s, 88–94; relations in 1980s, 94–95; rival interpretations of history, 74, 91–93; tensions in early 20th century, 71, 73 Gribble, Charles, 120 Gruev, Mihail, 54 Guinea, 197, 201 Hammer, Armand, 127 Havel, Václav, 7 Helsinki Final Act of 1975, 69, 101; Bulgarian policy in developing world after, 170, 171; Eastern European perspective on, 96, 98, 107; East-South relations after, 263n11; expanded cooperation after, 70, 89, 104, 107; Soviet response to, 98 Henry, Andrè, 128 history: appeal to, Bulgarian involvement in Africa and, 198, 199, 200, 217–19; exhibitions showcasing, 112–13; as political weapon, 79 history, rival interpretations of: with Balkan neighbors, 70, 71–76, 94; with Greece, 74, 91–93; with Romania, 71, 74–75, 77, 78, 79; with Soviet Union, 193; with Yugoslavia, 62–63, 64, 80–81 Hong, Young-Sun, 168 Hristov, Hristo, 82 Hristova, Natalia, 55, 59 human rights: Eastern vs. Western conception of, 128–29; Helsinki Accords and language of, 101; Western support for, Eastern European perspective on, 98 Hungary: and cultural outreach to West, 98, 106; Revolution of 1956 in, 26 Husák, Gustáv, 59 Ibrahim, Alhadji, 218 ideology: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 41, 110–11, 224; Bulgaria's cultural outreach and, 9, 10–11, 99–100, 109–10, 113, 118–19; culture and, 8, 30, 33, 38–39, 99–100, 128–29, 224; and East-South cultural exchange, 170–71, 197–98; and East-West cultural exchange, 33, 109–10 Ignatov, Asen, 141, 158 Ilinden Uprising, 81, 83 India: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 163, 189–90; civilizational message in, 165–66; Cold War dynamics and, 177, 178; contradictions associated with, 173–74; cultural exchanges with Bulgaria, 5, 163, 165–66, 181–87, 189–90, 194; economic cooperation with Bulgaria, 180–81, 268n85; after independence, 178; relations with Bulgaria, 13, 162–63, 164, 173–76, 179–81, 193; relations with socialist states, 178, 180; and Soviet Union, 178; Zhivkova's visits to, 174, 175, 184, 187, 190, 191f, 266n49 Indian-Bulgarian Friendship Societies, 162, 163, 185, 185f, 189, 263n2, 263n4, 269n108 Institute Français, 108 Institute of Thracology, 33, 53, 74 intellectuals, Bulgarian: cooptation by regime, 31, 32, 49, 53, 59; criticism of regime by, 55–56; defections of, 31, 55, 57, 141, 151, 158; role in power structures, 30–31, 32, 48–49, 55, 59; surveillance of, 57 International Children's Assemblies, xi, 1, 11, 11f, 38, 226; participants in, 39f, 186, 213 International Year of the Child (1979), events associated with, 114, 116 Ioan Kukuzel (Jean Coucouzèle), 114 Iordanoff, Nicholas, 155 Iordanov, Georgi, 121, 227 Iran: anniversary celebrations in, 45–46, 47; Zhivkov's visit to, 170 Iraq, 12, 167, 170, 171, 172 Ivanov, Dimitar, 227 Ivanov, Georgi, 94 Ivanov, Mariĭ, 83 Ivanov, Martin, 28 Japan, 13, 192, 193 Jean Coucouzèle (Ioan Kukuzel), 114 Joseph, Gilbert, 179 Judt, Tony, 15 Kalchev, Kamen, 56 Kalinova, Evgeniia, 31, 32, 49, 55, 252n64 Kalinovsky, Artemy M., 168, 220, 271n5 Kanelopoulos, Panaiotis, 91, 92f, 93 Kaplan, Flora Edouwaye S., 211 Karamanlis, Konstantinos, 69, 89, 90f, 93 Khan Asparuh (film), xi, 43, 225 Khrushchev, Nikita: and cultural exchanges with West, 106–7; and involvement in Third World, 167, 170; and Zhivkov, 26, 28 KIK. See Committee for Arts and Culture Kirchschlaeger, Rudolf, 120 KK. See Committee for Culture Kolar, Walter, 155 Kolarov, Vasil, 26 Kolchev, Stefan, 209 Kopelev, Lev, 123 Kornai, Janos, 48 Kostov, Vladimir, 57, 141 Kreisky, Bruno, 103, 105, 120 Kristeva, Julia, 158 Lampe, John, 120 late socialism: characteristics in Bulgaria, 25–26; contradictions of, 25; cultural outreach and perpetuation of, 21; and elite reorientation toward West, 102; normalization of, 17, 25, 30, 59–61, 161; uneasy compromise of, 222–23; use of term, xxi. See also developed socialism Latin America: Bulgarian cultural events in, 164, 233n3; Bulgaria's interest in, 180; as Third World, 167. See also specific countries legitimization of communist regimes: culture as tool of, 8, 19, 23, 60, 76, 222, 223, 224; détente as strategy for, 17, 54, 101–2; nationalism as tool of, 20, 60, 76 Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 35 Leonardo da Vinci, exhibition of masterworks by, 1, 35, 38, 124–25, 125f Levchev, Liubomir, 53, 54, 55, 118 Libya, 1, 12, 170, 171, 199 Lilov, Alexander, 33, 52 López Portillo, José, 163, 173, 176, 179, 181, 182, 183, 187, 189, 191 Luch (magazine), 132, 157, 159 Macedonia, contested place of, 62–63, 64, 71, 72–73, 80, 81–85, 139, 143 Macedonian Patriotic Organization (MPO), 138–39, 140, 143–44 MacGahan, Januarius, 149–50; monuments to, 149, 150, 150f, 151f; statue of, 151, 152f, 153 Mackworth-Young, Sir Robin, 125 Mali, 199, 201 Marinov, Tchavdar, 71, 74 Mark, James, 168 Markov, Georgi, 55, 57–58, 141, 158; assassination of, 58, 116, 119, 146–47, 159; defection of, 31, 55, 141; on Zhivkov's approach to intellectuals, 59 Marung, Steffi, 168 mass culture, vs. real culture, 99, 122 Matusevich, Maxim, 207 Maxwell, Robert, 227 Medieval Bulgarian Civilization exhibition, 36, 97, 112, 113, 119, 163, 191 Mengistu Haile Mariam, 1 Methodius, Saint, 153; bas relief in Ellwagen, West Germany, 153, 154f; disciples of, 40. See also 24th May celebrations; Cyril, Saint Mexico: 1300 Years Bulgaria celebrations in, 163, 190, 191; civilizational message in, 165–66; Cold War dynamics and, 177, 179; contradictions associated with, 173–74, 176–77; cultural exchanges with Bulgaria, 163, 165–66, 181–83, 187–89, 190, 191, 194; relations with Bulgaria, 13, 163, 164, 179–80, 181; relations with socialist states, 179; and Soviet Union, 179; Zhivkova's visits to, 163, 176, 176f, 191–92, 266n49 Mihailov, Stoian, 53 Minekov, Velichko, 153 Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MVnR): and 1300 Years Bulgaria celebrations overseas, 83, 93, 109; and cultural outreach, 32, 37; Department of Cultural Heritage, 37; and East-South cultural exchange, 215–16; and East-West cultural exchange, 97, 108, 109, 125, 146 Mitterrand, François, 105 Mladenov, Peter, 52, 84, 85, 105–6, 171 Mohammed, Murtala, 204, 210 monuments: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, xi, 43, 44f, 227–30, 228f; Banner of Peace International Children's Assembly and, xi, 11f, 38; socialist-era, debates surrounding, 227–30 Moore, Henry, 1, 127, 227 Moscow Olympics, boycott of, 105, 179 Mozambique, 12, 171, 199, 201, 202 MPO. See Macedonian Patriotic Organization multifaceted personalities: concept of, xi, xii, 35; programs focused on, 36–37, 124 MVnR. See Ministry of Foreign Affairs Nathans, Benjamin, 128 National Coordinating Committee 1300 Years Bulgaria (NKK), 42, 48, 91, 93, 108, 109 nationalism: and campaigns against minorities, 29; and conflicting interpretations of history, 76; function under socialism, 70–71; as legitimization tool for communist elites, 20, 60, 76; in outreach to Bulgarian èmigrès, 134, 135, 142; resurgence in Bulgaria, 71, 225; resurgence in Romania, 74–75; revival in Eastern Europe, 70. See also cultural nationalism; patriotism/"patriotic turn" NATO: Bulgaria's membership in, 225; Bulgaria's relations with members of, 64, 66, 85; Greek-Turkish conflicts and, 67–68; nuclear-weapons-free zone (NWFZ) initiative and, 95 NDK (People's Palace of Culture), Sofia, xi–xii, 42f, 43, 58, 227 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 178, 182 New International Economic Order (NIEO), 16, 168, 206, 211 New Lexington, Ohio, 149–53; monuments to MacGahan in, 149, 150, 150f, 151f; statue of MacGahan in, 151, 152f, 153 NIEO. See New International Economic Order Nigeria: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 195, 196, 216, 217–18; Bulgarian cultural exchanges with, 10f, 195–99, 212–19, 218f; Bulgarian presence in, xii, xvi, 14, 171, 202–9, 204, 211–12, 217–19; civil war of 1967-1970 in, 202, 203, 211; culture and history used for political goals in, 199, 210–11; development projects in, 14, 171, 198–99, 204, 204f; Eastern European specialists in, 203, 207–8; FESTAC 77 in, 203, 204, 205, 209–10, 211; after independence, 202–3; National Theater in Lagos, 14, 204, 204f, 208, 209, 210f; photographic exhibits in, 195, 213, 214, 215f, 217, 218, 274n91; Second Republic in, 207–8; Soviet bloc military aid to, 203, 272n33; Soviet presence in, 206, 207; Zhivkov's visit to, 171, 201, 205–6, 213 Nigeria-Bulgaria Friendship Societies, 213, 216, 218 NITsAA (Bulgarian Scientific Research Center on Africa and Asia), 200 Nixon, Richard, 66, 68 NKK. See National Coordinating Committee 1300 Years Bulgaria Nonaligned Movement, 66, 167, 168, 178, 179 Notes on the Bulgarian Uprisings (film), 64 nuclear-weapons-free zone (NWFZ) initiative, 94–95, 249n145 Obasanjo, Olusegun, 204–5, 207 Okilo, Milford, 196 Organization for Bulgarians Abroad, 131–32, 136. See also Slavic Committee Orthodox Church, Bulgarian: communist regime and, 139–40; U.S. congregations splitting from, 143 Orthodox Church of America, 140 Ottoman Empire: border issues following dissolution of, 73, 74; Bulgarian liberation from, centennial of, 149; rival interpretations of history of, 64, 86, 200 Papandreou, Andreas, 93, 94, 95 Paprikov, George, 157 patriotism/"patriotic turn": 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 40, 41, 71; cultural events/producers and, 25–26, 33; and domestic legitimization, 23, 29; embrace of nationalism as form of, 71; of èmigrès, efforts to nurture, 134, 135, 142, 147–48; holidays associated with, 29, 71; and normalization of late socialism, 61; and science of Thracology, 74 Pavlov, Konstantin, 55 Pavlov, Liubomir, 52 peaceful coexistence: Bulgarian foreign policy and, 170, 171, 197–98; India and principles of, 180 Peio Iavorov Cultural Association, 147, 153 People's Palace of Culture (NDK), Sofia, xi–xii, 42f, 43, 58, 227 pericentric perspective, 6–7, 17, 163–64, 193, 197, 198, 219 Persian Empire, 2500th anniversary of establishment of, 45–46, 47 Petrov, Valeri, 56, 240n111 Pirin Folk Ensemble, 94; tour of U.S., 116–17, 144, 156 Pirin Macedonia, 72, 73 Platel, Élisabeth, 11 Poland: Bulgaria compared to, 24; millennium celebrations of 1966, 44–45, 47, 60, 133; and Nigeria, 207; reconciliation between West Germany and, 101, 107; Solidarity movement in, 15, 105–6 Pomaks, assimilation campaigns targeting, 29, 75 Popov, Stefan, 148 Popova, Liliana, 144 Posada, José Guadalupe, 189 postsocialist transition, in Bulgaria: cultural nationalism during, 20, 232; and culture, 230–32; personal experience of, xiv–xvi; power elites during, 225, 226 Power, Romina, 11 power elites, Bulgarian: as agents of cultural outreach, 9, 12, 25, 35; criticism in Western media, 58; détente and, 17, 102; diaspora-building endeavors of, 131–34; and East-South relations, 175–77, 181, 183, 187, 190–92, 193; and East-West cultural exchange, 107–8; global processes and, 117, 118; legitimization strategies of, 20, 60, 76, 172, 222, 223; new generation (third generation) in 1970s, 26, 48–54; postsocialist reincarnation of, 225, 226; ties with West, 51–52, 102, 116, 117, 127–28 Pritam, Amrita, 184, 186 propaganda: culture and, 30, 99, 106, 107, 110, 111, 128–29, 223, 224; Western, efforts to limit, 33, 96, 97–98, 123–24, 129; Western objections to, 129 Proto-Bulgarians, 40, 74, 239n71 protochronism, 75 Purić, Danilo, 5, 83, 84 Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli, 184 Radio Free Europe (RFE): Bulgarian section of, 55, 57, 137, 141, 146, 147, 148; on Bulgaria's cultural outreach, 6; on Bulgaria's power elites, 48, 51; on reciprocity principle in cultural exchanges, 121–22; on Soviet response to Helsinki, 98; stories of political exiles and, 133 Ralin, Radoĭ, 55 Rao, Radjesvar, 162 Rao, Satyanarayana, 190 Reagan, Ronald, 102, 105, 116, 157 real culture, vs. mass culture, 99, 122 real socialism: proclamation at 10th Congress of BKP, 28; use of term, xxi. See also developed socialism reciprocity principle, in Cold War cultural contacts, 106, 109, 121–27 Redi, Narsa, 162 religion: communist regime's attitude toward, 139; èmigrès and, 139–40, 143. See also Orthodox Church, Bulgarian representative exhibitions, 8, 36–37, 97, 111, 139, 210 reputation, Bulgaria's cultural outreach and, 3, 4, 5, 6, 113, 171, 172, 177, 199 RFE. See Radio Free Europe Roerich, Nicholas, 35, 36–37, 232, 238n53 Roerich, Svetoslav, 227, 238n53 Roma, name-changing campaigns against, 29 Romania: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 77–80; 2050th anniversary in, 46, 60, 75, 76–77, 78; assertion of independence, 66–67; Bulgarian cultural campaigns and, 64, 77; and China, 66, 77; legitimization of Ceausescu regime in, 60; relations with Bulgaria, 76–80; resurgence of nationalism in, 74–75; rival historical interpretations in, 71, 74–75, 77, 78, 79; Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968) and, 69 Romano de López Portillo, Carmen, 176, 177, 190, 191 Roman Treasures from the Rhine District exhibition, 99, 126 Rusev, Svetlin, 50f, 53–54, 121, 227, 232 Saklarian, Stefan, 144–45 San Stefano, Treaty of, 73, 81, 149 Saraki, Olusoka, 216 Sauvagnargues, Jean, 103 Sauvy, Alfred, 166 Schmidt, Helmut, 104, 113, 115, 205 Second World, 16–17, 169. See also Eastern Europe; Soviet Union Second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC 77), 203, 204, 205, 209–10, 211 Semerdzhiev, Petar, 57, 158 Shagari, Shehu, 207, 208, 216 Shashko, Philip, 120 Simeon the Great (King of Bulgaria), 38, 153, 242n150 Simeon II (King of Bulgaria), 148 Simeonov, Vladimir, 146 Sixth Division, State Security: agents for historical espionage in, 37; monitoring of cultural events/figures by, 31, 32, 57, 227 Slavic alphabet, day of. See 24th May celebrations Slavic civilization, cultural programs highlighting Bulgaria's role in, 6, 35–36, 40–41, 111–12 Slavic Committee, 131–32, 135–36, 140, 142, 144, 155. See also Organization for Bulgarians Abroad Slavov, Atanas, 55, 158–60 Slavs, in Bulgarian ethnogenesis, 40, 74, 239n71 small states: "advantages of smallness," concept of, 6, 194, 224; and cultural diplomacy, 6–7, 36, 48, 109, 224, 232; as development model, 194–221; importance of, in Cold War, 2, 5–8, 14, 17–18, 67, 169, 172–73, 194, 198, 204, 208, 220–21, 224, 232; and pericentric perspective, 6–7, 17, 163–64, 193, 197, 198, 219 Snyder, Sarah, 101 socialist globalization, 163–64, 168 socialist internationalism: as alternative to Western development, 168; in Balkans, 80, 82, 85; and Bulgarian cultural exports, 9–10, 98; meaning of term, 243n12; and relations with Balkan neighbors, 77; and solidarity with Third World, 9, 170 Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 7, 54 South Africa, condemnation of apartheid regime in, 96, 205, 217 Soviet Union: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 23, 52, 193; aid to Africa, 197, 202; Balkan policies of, 72; Bulgarians living in, 136; Bulgaria's cultural outreach and, 6, 35, 64, 193, 224; Bulgaria's patriotic turn and, 29; Bulgaria's relations with Third World and, 18; Bulgaria's reputation as most loyal ally of, 6, 23, 24, 28–29, 67, 105, 170, 171, 224; cultural exchanges with West, 106–7; financial assistance to Bulgaria, 27, 28; and France, 103; Helsinki Final Act of 1975 and, 98, 101; and India, 178; invasion of Afghanistan, 18, 105, 178; involvement in Third World, 167, 170; on Macedonian question, 81; and Mexico, 179; Moscow Olympics, boycott of, 105, 179; and Nigeria, 206, 207; nuclear-weapons-free zone (NWFZ) initiative and, 249n145; rival historical interpretations with Bulgaria, 193; and Romania, 66; and Turkey, 85; and Yugoslavia, 66, 68; Zhivkov and, 18, 24, 26, 28 Square 500 museum complex, Sofia, 230–31 Stalin, Joseph, 26 Stanek, Łukasz, 14, 168, 198 Stanev, Emilian, 53 Stanoeva, Elitza, 60–61 Starchev, Valentin, 227 State Security. See Sixth Division state socialism: culture and, 8, 9, 17, 36, 225–26; use of term, xxi. See also developed socialism Stevenson, Adlai, 105, 120, 156 Stoianov, Stoian, 214 Stoianov, Zahari, 64 students: in classical high school, Sofia, xii–xiv, xvf; foreign, in Bulgarian universities, 13, 201, 206 Styron, William, 120 Sudan, 172, 201 Suri, Jeremi, 17, 54, 102 Sygkelos, Yannis, 71 Syria, 12, 167, 171, 172 Tabakoff, Dr., 150–51 Tabakov, Stefan, 137 Tagore, Rabindranath, 184, 187 Tamburitzans Folk Dance Ensemble, 155 Tanzania, xvi, 12, 170, 171, 199, 200, 201 Technoexportstroy, 204, 208 Thatcher, Margaret, 102, 104, 116 Third World, 16, 166–67; Cold War dynamics and, 166, 177, 179, 267n69; competition between First and Second Worlds in, 17; cultural exchanges with Bulgaria, 9, 12–15, 164, 170–73, 181–91, 194–99; Eastern European involvement in, 14, 18, 167–68, 198, 203, 207–8; merging of culture and development in outreach to, 169, 214, 217–21; motivations for Bulgaria's involvement in, 170–72, 175–77, 180, 197–98, 199, 219–21; solidarity with, 9, 14, 16, 18, 169, 170; Soviet involvement in, 167, 170, 178, 179, 206, 207; technical assistance to, xii, xvi, 14, 18; use of term, 265n32; Western economic involvement in, modernization theory of, 264n22. See also East-South relations; specific countries Thracians, role in Bulgarian ethnogenesis, 33, 40, 74, 239n71 Thracian Treasures from Bulgaria exhibition, 36, 74, 111; in Austria, 113, 114, 115–16; at British Museum, 116, 117; civilizational message of, 97; "complex events" accompanying, 117; in France, 114, 253n92; Greek response to, 92; ideological message of, 113; in India, 190, 191f, 270n127; at Metropolitan Museum of Art, 62, 112f, 116, 117, 117f, 118, 124; in Mexico, 189; reinvention in 2015, 230; in West Germany, 97, 147 Three Worlds model, 16–17, 169 Tito, Josip Broz, 15, 66, 69, 84 Todorov, Nikolai, 92f; as ambassador to Greece, 90–93; on Bulgarian-Greek relations, 88–89 Todorov, Tzvetan, 158 Treasures of the Rila Monastery exhibition, 36, 112, 119, 120 Tripanis, Konstantinos, 89 Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt, 149 Tunisia, 12, 170, 171, 199, 201 Turkey: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 87–88, 248n106; Bulgaria's Turkish minority and, 71, 75–76, 86; conflicts with Greece, 67–68; diplomatic response to Bulgarian films, 64; invasion of Cyprus (1974), 68, 76, 85, 86; relations with Bulgaria, 69, 85–88; relations with Soviet Union, 85 Turkish minority, in Bulgaria: assimilation campaigns targeting, 29, 61, 76, 225; and relations with Turkey, 71, 75–76, 86 Turner, Tina, 1, 10, 13f, 38 Uhde, Milan, 59 UNESCO: Bulgarian cultural programs and, 11, 36, 47, 114, 120; postsocialist elites and, 225 United Nations: in 1970s, 16; and Bulgarian cultural programs, 36; and International Children's Assembly, 1, 38; Zhivkova at, 105, 116 United States: 1300 Years Bulgaria celebrations in, 120, 142–45, 156; Bulgarian cultural outreach to, 12, 118–19, 120, 124; Bulgarian èmigrès in, 132, 137, 138, 142–45, 149–53, 155–60; Bulgarian relations with, 104–5; concept of human rights in, 128–29; cultural propaganda from, 123, 124; "differential approach" to Eastern Europe, 68; and India, 178; as model for anniversary celebration, 46, 47; reciprocity in cultural exchanges with, 127, 129; and Romania, 66, 68; Thracian Treasures from Bulgaria exhibition at, 62, 112f, 116, 117, 117f, 118; and Yugoslavia, 66, 68 United States Information Agency (USIA/USICA), 108, 124 Updike, John, 120 Uzunov, Dechko, 31 Vali, Sadik, 195 Van Beurden, Sarah, 211 Vance, Cyrus, 105 Vanga, Baba, 50, 226 Vardar Macedonia, 81, 84 Varna International Ballet Competition, 1, 11 Vassilev, Iordan, 55 Vazov, Ivan, 61 Velchev, Boris, 49 Venezuela, 180 Verdery, Katherine, 33, 60 Vezenkov, Alexander, 49 Vietnam, 13, 170, 184 Vietnam War, 37, 104 Vladigerov, Pancho, 84 Voice of America (VOA): Bulgarian section of, 137, 159; stories of political exiles and, 133 Vonnegut, Kurt, 158 Vukmanovic-Tempo, Svetozar, 83 West/Western countries: 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 97, 119–21; 1970s from perspective of, 15, 16; aid to Africa, 201; appeal of, during postsocialist transition, xv–xvi; Bulgarian cultural exchanges with, 10–12, 14, 96–98, 107–11, 115–16, 118–20, 122–27; Bulgarian èmigrès in, cultural outreach targeting, 131–33; criticism of Bulgarian power elites, 58; cultural diplomacy in, 97, 128–30; cultural outreach by, 97–98, 99, 121–24, 129; defectors to, 31, 55, 57, 141, 151; "differential approach" to Eastern Europe, 68, 102; economic involvement in Third World, 264n22; elite reorientation toward, late socialism and, 51–52, 102, 116, 117, 127–28; Markov's assassination and, 58; mass culture of, condemnation of, 122; meaning of term, 102; propaganda from, efforts to limit, 33, 96, 97–98, 123–24, 129. See also East-West cultural exchange; East-West relations; specific countries West Germany (FRG): 24th May celebrations in, 147; 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary and, 119, 147; Bulgarian èmigrès in, 132, 145–48, 153–54; Bulgarian relations with, 12, 103–4, 105; cultural exchanges with Bulgaria, 12, 97–98, 115–16, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123–24, 125–27, 126f; cultural propaganda from, 123–24; international recognition of, 100, 101; mass culture of, 122; Ostpolitik in, 101, 103, 107 women's movement, 14, 198, 213 World Parliament, in Sofia, 37–38 Yanatchkov, Kiril, 138 Yemen, 172, 201, 202 Yugoslavia: Macedonian question and, 62–63, 64, 71, 72–73, 80, 81–85, 139, 143; relations with Bulgaria, 64, 80–85; rival historical interpretations in, 62–63, 64, 80–81; state socialism in, 66; after Tito's death, 84–85; Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968) and, 69 Yurchak, Alexei, 16 Zaharieva, Maria, 215 Zahra, Tara, 133 Zarev, Pantaleĭ, 53 Zhivkov, Todor: on 1300 Years Bulgaria anniversary, 22, 43; "benevolent dictatorship" of, 25, 27, 60; and Brezhnev, 18, 26, 28, 67, 170; and Ceausescu, 77, 80; consolidation of power, 28, 49, 59–60; coup against, 31, 225; as cultural benefactor, 50f; on dissidence, 57; èmigrè organizations' attacks on, 137, 138; foreign policy of, Soviet reaction to, 18; former bodyguard of, 230; intellectuals in social circle ("hunting crew") of, 31, 32, 49, 53, 59; on international culture, 182; and Karamanlis, 90f, 93; and Khrushchev, 26, 28; legitimization strategies of, 76, 222, 223; on Macedonian question, 72; meeting with èmigrès, 131; and outreach to developing countries, 171, 172, 180; psychological portrait of, 49; and regional cooperation in Balkans, 67, 69, 94; and relations with Soviet Union, 18, 24, 26, 28; removal of political adversaries by, 27, 31, 49; rise to power, 26–27; and Schmidt, 104; "socialist democratization" policies of 1960s, 31; and Tito, 84; travel record of, 170; visits to Africa, 171, 201–2; visits to Greece, 89, 93; visits to India, 173, 174; visit to Mexico, 176, 189; visit to Nigeria, 171, 201, 205–6, 213; visit to Turkey, 86 Zhivkova, Evgeniia, 226, 227 Zhivkova, Liudmila: and 1300 Years Bulgaria celebrations, 36, 41, 42, 52, 110, 227; and aesthetic education/beauty, 25, 34, 38, 122, 127, 190; career of, 50; close associates of, 9, 49, 53–54, 74, 227, 232; commemoration of 70th anniversary of, 226–27; and cultural policy, 9, 25, 34–40; death of, xii, 192, 226; and East-South relations, 165, 175–77, 183, 187, 190–92, 193; and East-West cultural exchange, 107–8, 115, 120, 126, 127; and Gallery for International Art, Sofia, 37; and Gandhi (Indira), 13, 175–76, 175f, 177, 190, 192, 227; interest in theosophy and mysticism, 50–51, 165, 177, 187, 226, 238n58; and International Children's Assemblies, 38; legacy of, 226, 230, 231, 232; and Roerich, 238n53; and Romano de López Portillo, 176, 177, 190, 192; studies of, 116, 240n98, 254n105; on Thracian Treasures exhibition, 113; at United Nations, 105, 116; vision of multifaceted personalities, xii, 124; visits to India, 174, 175, 184, 187, 190, 191f, 266n49; visits to Mexico, 163, 176, 176f, 191–92, 266n49; visit to Greece, 89; on Western culture, 122; Western press on, 51–52 Znepolski, Ivaĭlo, 27, 29–30